Against All Odds: Participation of Disadvantaged Adults in Nonformal Education and Training Across Europe

This study presents the first comprehensive examination of disadvantaged adults’ participation in Nonformal Education and Training (NFE) across 30 European countries. It investigates how disadvantaged participants differ from their nonparticipating peers within the same social groups, the influence of multi-level factors on their participation, and the specific characteristics of their participation in NFE. Drawing on data from the 2022 Adult Education Survey, the study yields three key findings. First, their participation is shaped by a multilayered structure of age, education, labor market, and country-level variables. Second, their likelihood of participation varies significantly between national adult learning systems. Third, patterns of engagement differ with respect to the type of NFE, mode of delivery, learning initiation, and the provision of guidance. These findings underscore the enduring structural inequalities in NFE and point to the urgent need for policy frameworks that address the multilayered nature of factors influencing participation among disadvantaged adults.