Green algae for the removal of bisphenol A: Integrated analysis of toxicological and metabolic responses at the cellular and molecular levels

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a synthetic organic compound released into the environment as a result of the decomposition of microplastics. Due to its widespread presence and high toxicity to living organisms, it poses a significant environmental challenge. In aquatic ecosystems, photosynthetic green microalgae (Chlorophyta) are primary producers and are important for the assessment and monitoring of water quality. Although green algae are a source of valuable biocompounds, such as fatty acids or proteins which are important in the human diet, and a renewable energy source, the effects of BPA exposure on the metabolism of these microorganisms are poorly understood. This review summarises recent studies on the occurrence of BPA in the environment, including water, wastewater, leachates, soil, sediments, sludge, air, and dust and presents current knowledge on the mechanisms by which green algae remove BPA. The present study also explores the impact of BPA on growth, chlorophyll fluorescence, gene expression, and metabolic pathways in green microalgae.