When Less is More: The Interacting Effects of Spatial and Temporal Cues in Virtual Reality

Immersive virtual reality (VR) has transformative potential for education, yet the principles for optimal learning environments remain nascent. A 2×2 between-subjects experiment with 118 college students examined the individual and interactive effects of temporal cues (with vs. without) and spatial cues (with vs. without) on cognitive load, perceived presence, and learning performance. Temporal cues reduced intrinsic cognitive load but did not directly enhance learning, whereas spatial cues reduced extraneous cognitive load, increased presence, and improved performance. Mediation analyses indicated that the effect of spatial cues on learning performance was fully mediated by extraneous cognitive load, but this benefit was diminished when temporal cues were concurrently provided. These findings suggest that cue interaction in immersive VR reflects a load-dependent reallocation of cognitive resources rather than simple attentional competition. This study highlights the importance of selectively deploying spatial and temporal cues to optimize cognitive load and learning in immersive VR environments.