Dynamic Analytical and Experimental Study of Wearable Thermoelectric Devices for Thermal Tactile Feedback

Thermal tactile perception plays a crucial role in enhancing realism and immersion in human–machine interaction, virtual/augmented reality, and wearable systems. By exploiting the thermoelectric effect to achieve precisely controllable heating and cooling, wearable thermoelectric devices (WTEDs) offer an effective approach for generating localized and programmable thermal sensations, which calls for a clear understanding of skin temperature regulation mechanisms. In this work, a dynamic thermal conduction model is developed for a skin–WTED integrated system incorporating a nickel foam-reinforced hydrogel heat sink, based on the dual-phase lag (DPL) bioheat conduction theory. The model accounts for blood perfusion and metabolic heat generation in skin tissue, as well as the Thomson effect within the thermoelectric legs and convective heat losses from their side surfaces. The theoretical predictions are validated through human skin temperature regulation experiments using a fabricated WTED, showing close agreement between experiments and simulations and confirming the model’s accuracy and reliability. Based on the validated model, the cooling current, filling factor, and thermoelectric leg height are optimized by minimizing the skin surface temperature. Furthermore, the model is applied to thermal tactile feedback studies, enabling the controlled reproduction of skin thermal sensations associated with common objects, including an iron block, a PMMA plate, and carbonated beverages packaged in aluminum cans and plastic bottles. Overall, this study provides a practical and predictive framework for understanding, optimizing, and applying WTEDs in thermal tactile feedback.