Navigating endocrine disrupting compounds in aquatic ecosystems through sources, biological implications, and sustainable remediation techniques

The growing use of cosmetic products, plastics, industrial chemicals, pesticides, and fuels has resulted in the improper disposal of their waste into aquatic ecosystems. The limited removal efficiency of conventional water treatment plants (WWTPs), together with challenges in environmental monitoring, has contributed to persistence of EDC in aquatic environments. This has led to human exposure to EDCs through various sources, including water consumption, food intake, inhalation, and dermal contact. EDCs have the capacity to both mimic and antagonize natural hormones in the human body, disrupting the endocrine system's function and causing various health issues such as infertility, cognitive impairment, obesity, cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes, and endocrine-related cancers. This review primarily focuses on major classes of EDCs detected in aquatic environments, including pharmaceutical hormones (e.g., estradiol and ethinylestradiol), plastic additives (e.g., bisphenols and phthalates), industrial chemicals, pesticides, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). It provides a comprehensive overview of their sources, environmental occurrence, human health impacts, and current remediation strategies. Research indicates that methods such as membrane filtration, adsorption, and biodegradation show potential in removing EDCs from water. Despite recent advancements, challenges to track the occurrence of various EDCs across different regions well as effective solutions for their elimination from aquatic environments remain. Therefore, addressing these challenges is crucial in fully understanding and developing more effective solutions for their elimination from aquatic environments.