Profiling the Invisible: A Scoping Review of Characteristics and Detection of Live-Streaming Child Sexual Abuse Offenders

Live-streaming child sexual abuse (LSCSA) represents a rapidly evolving and concealed form of child exploitation emerging at the intersection of technology, poverty, and opportunity. This scoping review synthesizes empirical findings to characterize the actors involved and the socioeconomic conditions facilitating LSCSA. Drawing on a thematically synthesized PRISMA-ScR approach, 12 relevant articles were identified, supplemented by an expert interview with the Dutch National Police, offering valuable insights on the current issues and challenges faced by law enforcement. Evidence highlights that most LSCSA offenders are demographically homogenous, predominantly older men from developed countries. They exploit economically vulnerable families in low-income countries to obtain customized, real-time sexual abuse content. LSCSA differs from other forms of child sexual abuse material (CSAM) due to its real-time, financially driven nature, posing unique legal and technological challenges to detection and prosecution. Furthermore, its interactive and on-demand nature allows offenders to direct the abuse as it happens, further compounding its psychological harm to victims and complicating efforts to trace and prosecute the crime. Traditional investigative tools have limited utility due to technological barriers, including end-to-end encryption, anonymous payment systems, and browser privacy features. Therefore, data-driven solutions, including machine learning, transaction monitoring, and international collaboration, are emphasized to disrupt LSCSA networks. By consolidating current knowledge on LSCSA and proposing evidence-based policy recommendations tailored to law enforcement needs, particularly those of the Dutch National Police, this research contributes to a more data-driven, ethically sound, and globally coordinated response to online child sexual exploitation in an increasingly digital world.