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June 14, 2026Oncology and TherapyOpen Access

Beyond the BCG Paradox: Biological Rationale and Clinical Evidence for Combining Intravesical BCG with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in High-Risk Non-muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer

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Authors

MMMichele MusoneBBBiagio BaroneSCStefano Chianese

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Overview

Narrative review examines combining BCG and immune checkpoint inhibitors for high-risk bladder cancer, highlighting mixed outcomes.

Key Points

  • To explore the rationale and clinical evidence for combining intravesical BCG with immune checkpoint inhibitors in high-risk non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer.
  • Conducted literature review on immunological mechanisms of BCG and ICIs
  • Evaluated clinical trials focusing on safety and efficacy
  • Analyzed patient populations and study designs
  • Clinical evidence remains heterogeneous with variable response rates in patients
  • Phase III data show combination strategies don't always improve outcomes
  • Current knowledge is derived predominantly from early-phase trials and ongoing studies

Cite This Study

Musone et al. (2026) studied this question.

synapsesocial.com/papers/6a2e45adb1cc60ccdea8a967https://doi.org/10.1007/s40487-026-00445-8
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