Revisiting the paradoxes of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research: from policy implementation to operational contradictions

Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research are increasingly promoted in science-policy discourse as essential for addressing complex societal challenges, yet enduring tensions remain across policy and institutional settings. Drawing on a systematic review of policy literature and a narrative review of academic scholarship, we conceptualize these difficulties through a paradox perspective. We identify two clusters of interdependent tensions embedded in research systems: policy implementation paradoxes, which arise from persistent misalignments between policy expectations and the conditions required for inter- and transdisciplinarity; and operational paradoxes, which arise as researchers navigate competing demands for collaboration, competition, depth, and exploration. Understanding these long-standing challenges as paradoxes clarifies why conventional interventions often fall short. We argue that more effective support for inter- and transdisciplinary work requires policy approaches that embrace complexity and institutional arrangements that value diversity, enabling research systems to sustain, rather than prematurely resolve, competing demands.