PEDOT: PSS for Implantable and Wearable Bioelectronics: From Material Engineering and Energy Storage to Clinical Translation

Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene): polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT: PSS), distinguished by its exceptional electrical conductivity, superior biocompatibility, and capacity for multifunctional integration, has emerged as a pivotal biomaterial at the nexus of biomedical engineering and flexible electronics. This review systematically elucidates the fundamental physicochemical attributes and charge transport mechanisms of PEDOT: PSS. It critically examines mainstream modification strategies-including solvent doping, surfactant engineering, nanocomposite formulation, and plasma treatment-providing deep insights into how these approaches govern the material's microstructure and macroscopic performance. Building on this foundation, we detail recent breakthroughs in frontier applications such as biosensing and real-time monitoring, electroceuticals, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, smart targeted drug delivery, and self-powered wearable devices. Special emphasis is placed on the synergistic interplay among performance optimization, modification strategies, and clinical translation. Furthermore, the article offers a critical analysis of persistent challenges hindering clinical adoption, including long-term stability, biosafety, and batch-to-batch consistency. Finally, we outline future trajectories, such as counterion substitution, biomimetic interface functionalization, and intelligent closed-loop systems. This work aims to establish a robust theoretical and technical framework to accelerate the advanced research and broad deployment of PEDOT: PSS in biomedical contexts.