Bottled Up and Breaking: The Impact of Masculine Norms on Emotional Expression and Psychological Distress in Adolescent Boys

Adolescent men are under intense pressure to live up to conventional masculine standards that disallow the display of emotions, but little is known about the psychological costs of this adherence. This study was conducted using a sequential explanatory mixed-method design to determine whether the association between masculine norm conformity and psychological distress is mediated by emotional suppression. A survey ( n = 892 boys; 13–18 years old) conducted on conformity to masculine norms revealed that conformity significantly predicted emotional suppression (0.521, p <.001), which entirely mediated between conformity and distress (indirect effect = 0.287, p <.001); the strongest predictors were emotional control and self-reliance. Three new processes were identified in follow-up interviews ( n = 38): performative emotional labor, paradoxes of masculine authenticity, and relational hunger. The effects varied with age, with a peak pressure in the mid-adolescent period. The evidence supports gender-transformative, masculine norm prevention.