Trends and socioeconomic-spatial inequalities in hypertension among Muslim women in India, 2015–2021: evidence from the National Family Health Surveys

Figures

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  Figure 1. Conceptual pathway linking religious minority status, socioeconomic position, spatial context, and hypertension risk among Muslim women in India. Note: Solid text indicates variables observed in NFHS and included in the empirical analysis; italic text indicates theoretically plausible pathways that are not directly tested as mediators in the present study.

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  Figure 2. Region and State-level choropleth maps of hypertension prevalence (%) among women aged 15-49 years in India, NFHS-4 (2015-16) and NFHS-5 (2019-21). Administrative boundaries shown in the maps correspond to those recognized during the respective NFHS survey periods. In NFHS-4 (2015-16), Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh were represented as a single administrative unit. In NFHS-5 (2019-21), Ladakh was delineated as a separate Union Territory and is depicted accordingly. Gray-shaded areas represent regions for which data were not available in the NFHS datasets.

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  Figure 3. Poor-to-rich ratios for hypertension prevalence across socioeconomic subgroups among Muslim women in India, NFHS-4 (2015–16) and NFHS-5 (2019–21).

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  Figure 4. Moran’s I scatterplots of district-level hypertension prevalence among women aged 15–49 years in India, NFHS-4 (2015–16) and NFHS-5 (2019–21). Author’s calculation based on NFHS-4 and NFHS-5. Moran’s I statistics and corresponding p-values are reported within each panel. The scatterplots show the relationship between district-level hypertension prevalence and the spatially lagged mean of neighboring districts, based on a first-order contiguity spatial weights matrix. Each point represents a district.

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  Figure 5. Moran’s I scatterplots of district-level hypertension prevalence among Muslim women aged 15–49 years in India, NFHS-4 (2015–16) and NFHS-5 (2019–21). Author’s calculation based on NFHS-4 and NFHS-5. Moran’s I statistics and corresponding p-values are reported within each panel. The scatterplots show the relationship between district-level hypertension prevalence and the spatially lagged mean of neighboring districts, based on a first-order contiguity spatial weights matrix. Each point represents a district.

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  Figure 6. Local indicators of spatial association (LISA) clusters for hypertension prevalence among all women and Muslim women aged 15–49 years in India, NFHS-4 (2015-16). Source: Authors’ calculation based on NFHS-4 data. District boundaries reflect the administrative divisions in place during the respective NFHS survey periods. Dark gray-shaded areas represent districts for which NFHS did not report hypertension estimates, either due to non coverage, administrative exclusion, or insufficient sample size for reliable prevalence reporting. District boundaries reflect the administrative divisions in place during the respective NFHS survey periods. Grey-shaded districts represent areas for which NFHS did not report hypertension estimates, either due to non-coverage, administrative exclusion, or insufficient sample size for reliable prevalence reporting. Since the analysis is restricted to Muslim women at the district level, some included districts may still have relatively small subsamples. LISA classifications should therefore be interpreted as indicative of broad spatial clustering patterns rather than precise district-level rankings.

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  Figure 7. Local Spatial Indicators Association (LISA) using Moran’s I for hypertension prevalence among all women and Muslim women aged 15-49 years in India, NFHS-5 (2019-21). Source: Authors’ calculation based on NFHS-5 data. Note: District boundaries reflect the administrative divisions in place during the respective NFHS survey periods. Dark grey-shaded areas represent districts for which NFHS did not report hypertension estimates, either due to non-coverage, administrative exclusion, or insufficient sample size for reliable prevalence reporting. District boundaries reflect the administrative divisions in place during the respective NFHS survey periods. Grey-shaded districts represent areas for which NFHS did not report hypertension estimates, either due to non-coverage, administrative exclusion, or insufficient sample size for reliable prevalence reporting. Since the analysis is restricted to Muslim women at the district level, some included districts may still have relatively small subsamples. LISA classifications should therefore be interpreted as indicative of broad spatial clustering patterns rather than precise district-level rankings.