Invisible labour, unequal burden: gender, institutions, and the unpaid care economy in India

This study provides a pioneering analysis of structural determinants shaping India’s unpaid care economy, emphasising rural–urban disparities and evaluating institutional policies. It uniquely employs comprehensive national time-use surveys (1998–2024) alongside secondary socioeconomic data, applying robust two-way fixed-effects and quantile regression techniques to uncover nuanced distributional effects. Bridging a crucial literature gap, the analysis reveals stark contrasts: healthcare access and women’s literacy significantly alleviate caregiving burdens in rural areas, whereas persistent sociocultural barriers limit women’s labour market participation in urban settings. The findings highlight the undervalued yet critical role of unpaid care labour in broader economic dynamics, advocating targeted, gender-responsive policy interventions. Specifically, the study recommends region-specific caregiving infrastructures, employment schemes integrating care responsibilities, and cultural initiatives promoting shared domestic roles. This evidence-driven framework not only enhances gender equity but also repositions unpaid care work at the core of inclusive development policy agendas.