Multilevel contextual factors influencing citizen co-production: evidence from New York City Public Schools

Purpose This study examines how organization- and community-level social capital and socioeconomic demands are associated with citizen co-production engagement, and whether these associations differ across types of co-production. Design/methodology/approach Multilevel mixed-effects models are estimated using data from New York City public schools, employing organization-level survey data and community-level census and administrative records. Findings Social capital is the most consistent predictor across both co-design and co-delivery: organization-level trust and community-level volunteering are positively associated with both types, with the trust–co-design link being particularly pronounced. Socioeconomic demand factors show more heterogeneous patterns: economic need is not associated with co-design and is negatively associated with co-delivery, while racial heterogeneity is positively associated with both. Research limitations/implications High-social-capital environments provide the normative foundations that sustain citizen engagement by reducing coordination costs and building relational trust. However, the mixed effects of socioeconomic demands indicate that co-production carries distinct resource demands that set it apart from other forms of civic engagement. Originality/value This study jointly examines factors within a unified multilevel framework, advancing theoretical understanding of contextual drivers of co-production that have received limited attention in prior research. Practically, the findings offer guidance for public managers seeking to build organizational and community environments for sustained citizen engagement.