Space organizes time in horological museum interiors: a design-based empirical test of the Chrono-Spatial Experience Model (CSEM) in South Korea and China

Time perception research emphasizes psychological mechanisms, whereas museum space studies often rely on behavioral indicators, leaving subjective time less directly linked to spatial design. This study asks how interior design decisions and spatial strategies shape visitors’ subjective temporal experience in horological museums beyond circulation efficiency, and whether this pattern holds across the two national contexts of South Korea and China. We test the Chrono-Spatial Experience Model (CSEM) using survey data from two museums in Seoul and Yantai. Exploratory factor analysis identifies four dimensions of indoor temporal experience: spatial rhythm (SR), time efficiency and wayfinding (TEW), temporal recovery and comfort (TRC), and temporal immersion (TI). The two museums show comparable levels of SR and TI but rely on different supports: Polaris exhibits stronger TRC, whereas the Time Museum relies more on TEW. SR is the strongest predictor of TI in both museums; TEW is more predictive in the Time Museum, while Polaris shows higher TRC mainly as a profile difference rather than a TI predictor. The findings suggest that different spatial strategies and wayfinding logic can create similar temporal immersion. This study offers a practical framework linking subjective time to design-relevant variables, with cross-cultural insights for museum design.