Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) as a Key Tree-Based Livelihood Resource in Semi-Arid Zimbabwe: Gender, participation, and market constraints in the Upper Zambezi Valley

Trees are integral to everyday livelihood strategies in semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa, where households depend on locally available tree resources for food, income, and resilience. This study investigates the role of tamarind ( Tamarindus indica ) locally known as musika/busika) in Binga District, northwestern Zimbabwe, focusing on household participation, gendered labour, income generation, and market engagement. Data were collected through a household survey involving 304 households and analyzed using descriptive statistics, a logistic regression model of participation and a Heckman two-stage selection model of annual tamarind income among households with positive sales. The findings indicate that tamarind is deeply embedded in local livelihood systems: 81% of households participating in the tamarind value chain, 61.5% obtain tamarind from homestead trees and 51.7% report tamarind as their primary income source. Women (67.1%) and girls (20.1%) dominate harvesting and postharvest activities, highlighting both opportunities for women’s economic agency and persistent gendered labour burdens. Most households (44.8%) sold the fruit in its raw form, with only 1% engaging in basic value addition and 42.8% of sales occurred within the same ward, indicating shallow market integration. Econometric results indicate that participation is broadly inclusive and not constrained by age or formal education, while income is more strongly associated with social positioning (female-headed and single households and farm labourers) than with human capital variables. Single headed households were significantly more likely to participate in the tamarind value chain (coef. = 0.199, p < 0.05) and earned higher annual tamarind income (USD 451.13, p < 0.01) than married monogamous households. Overall, the findings highlight tamarind as a crucial tree-based livelihood resource in a climate-stressed environment yet remains economically constrained by weak market integration. Strengthening low-cost processing, women-led collective marketing, and rural-urban market linkages could substantially enhance tamarind’s livelihood benefits while preserving its accessibility to vulnerable households.