Plant-derived nanoplatforms for precision bioactive delivery: Viral scaffolds in nanomedicine

Plant-derived nanomedicines are redefining sustainable therapeutics by leveraging edible extracellular vesicles, plant biopolymers, and plant virus–based scaffolds to target shared molecular circuits in chronic inflammation, cancer, and central nervous system (CNS) disease. Edible vesicles (exosome-like nanoparticles) have shown, in preclinical models, oral stability, biocompatibility, and intrinsic bioactivity. However, their reported effects on NF-κB/Nrf2 signaling, macrophage polarization, and drug delivery are dependent on vesicle source, cargo composition, and disease context, with evidence for brain delivery largely limited to intranasal administration rather than confirmed transvascular blood–brain barrier crossing. Edible vesicles (exosome-like nanoparticles) exhibit oral stability, biocompatibility, and bioactivity in preclinical studies. They have been reported to modulate NF-κB and Nrf2 signaling, influence macrophage polarization, and serve as carriers for small molecules, biologics, and RNAs that remain stable in the gastrointestinal environment, with brain delivery as demonstrated via intranasal administration routes. Plant biopolymer nanoparticles, derived from materials such as pectin, cellulose, starch, and plant proteins, provide sustainable and tunable drug-delivery systems that can be designed for site-specific or stimuli-responsive release and improved safety profiles. Viral scaffolds derived from nonreplicating plant viruses (e.g., cowpea mosaic virus) provide multivalent capsids that act as potent in situ cancer vaccines by engaging toll-like receptors and type-I interferon pathways, converting “cold” tumors to inflamed, T-cell-infiltrated lesions. Across ulcerative colitis and colitis-associated cancer, triple-negative breast and ovarian cancers, and glioblastoma, these platforms address translational bottlenecks—poor barrier penetration, off-target toxicity, and immunosuppression—while advancing scalability and sustainability from renewable botanical sources. This review synthesizes mechanistic principles (NF-κB/Nrf2 signaling, TLR engagement, macrophage polarization), highlights disease-module exemplars (ginger and grape vesicles in colitis; plant virus nanoparticles as in situ vaccines in breast/ovarian cancer; citrus vesicles ferrying temozolomide to brain tumors), and outlines manufacturing considerations for clinical translation. Together, edible vesicles, biopolymers, and viral scaffolds constitute a convergent toolkit for precision nanotherapy, with potential to integrate into functional foods, adjuvant oncology regimens, and CNS-directed delivery strategies that reduce cost and environmental footprint while improving outcomes.