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June 22, 2026Frontiers in Veterinary ScienceOpen Access

A scoping review of farm-level biosecurity measure effectiveness against foot-and-mouth disease to inform planning and preparedness efforts in the United States

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Key result

Farm-level biosecurity measures lack consistent evidence for reducing FMD risk in field settings.

  • n=22

Why the study?

Biosecurity measures interrupting foot-and-mouth disease virus transmission are critical during outbreaks, but quantitative data supporting the effectiveness of many recommended farm-level measures are limited.

Do farm-level biosecurity measures mitigate Foot-and-Mouth Disease risk in domestic livestock?

Population

22 reports describing data from 16 unique countries published between 1998 and 2024

Comparison

Biosecurity practices applied at the farm level to mitigate FMD risk

Design

Scoping review

Authors

MSMaRyka R. SmithCenter for Outcomes Research and Clinical EpidemiologyCHChristy J. HanthornKansas State UniversityMSMichael W. SandersonKansas State University

Discussion

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Implication

Sparse inconsistent field evidence precludes firm FMD biosecurity recommendations; leaves open need for quantitative effectiveness studies.

Key Points

  • This review aims to evaluate the effectiveness of farm-level biosecurity measures against the transmission of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD).
  • Systematic search of four databases yielding 3,153 unique records.
  • Included reports had to be peer-reviewed, in English, and relevant to FMD biosecurity measures at the farm level.
  • 22 reports were selected, examining biosecurity practices across multiple countries and domestic livestock species.
  • Two experimental studies found variable efficacy of handwashing and showering as biosecurity measures.
  • Twenty reports discussed the application of various biosecurity measures, yet no practice was consistently effective across multiple reports.
  • Limited and inconsistent data prevents effective meta-analysis and the establishment of comprehensive biosecurity guidelines.

Study Design

Type

Systematic Review (n=22)

Structured PICO

Do farm-level biosecurity measures mitigate Foot-and-Mouth Disease risk in domestic livestock?

P
Population
22 peer-reviewed reports evaluating farm-level biosecurity measures against foot-and-mouth disease in domestic livestock across 16 countries.
I
Intervention
Farm-level biosecurity measures (including handwashing, showering, changing outerwear, disinfection, and measures applied to livestock, personnel, visitors, vehicles, and fomites)
O
Outcome
Effectiveness of biosecurity measures at mitigating Foot-and-Mouth Disease risk

There is currently inconsistent and limited evidence to support the effectiveness of specific farm-level biosecurity measures against foot-and-mouth disease in field settings.

Limitations

  • Inconsistent and limited evidence to support the effectiveness of specific biosecurity measures in field settings
  • Meta-analysis was infeasible due to data scarcity
  • Lack of specific details on isolation practices, disinfection protocols, or products used in most reports
  • Meta-analysis infeasible at this time

Cite This Study

Smith et al. (2026) conducted a systematic review in Foot-and-Mouth Disease (n=22). Farm-level biosecurity measures vs. No biosecurity or standard practice was evaluated on Effectiveness of biosecurity measures at mitigating FMD risk. Farm-level biosecurity measures lacked consistent quantitative evidence of effectiveness against foot-and-mouth disease in field settings across the reviewed literature.

synapsesocial.com/papers/6a39557e4a780fc71663eb4bhttps://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2026.1819419
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Also Consider

Synapse has enriched 5 closely related papers on similar clinical questions. Consider them for comparative context:

  1. 1Investigation of smallholder farmer biosecurity and implications for sustainable foot-and-mouth disease control in Cambodia2017 · 23 citations
  2. 2The economic impacts of foot and mouth disease – What are they, how big are they and where do they occur?2013 · 918 citations
  3. 3Foot and mouth disease vaccine strain selection: current approaches and future perspectives2018 · 124 citations
  4. 4On‐farm eradication of foot‐and‐mouth disease as an alternative to mass culling2006 · 16 citations
  5. 5PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation2018 · 44,330 citations