Public health and wellbeing under compounding climate hazards: the scale of harm is larger than we can currently see

There is growing attention to the health effects of compounding hazards and disasters. This paper overviews what is currently known about physical health, mental health, and wellbeing effects, identifying studies that show progress in the field by moving away from analyzing single hazards separately to understand their combined effects. However, to ensure we can see the full scale of health effects from compounding events, this paper argues that there is a need for further research that looks at more than just the direct effects of hazards. Synergistic effects between social crises and environmental hazards (e.g. the opioid epidemic and heatwaves) are identified as examples that remain understudied in both climate and health and disaster public health literatures. Examples of disaster survivor experiences are highlighted to illustrate exposure pathways that are in need of further research in compounding events, including restricted access to financial resources, unstable housing, and inability to access medications and supplies to manage chronic health conditions, all of which may influence health.