Rare earth and non-rare earth critical minerals for the manufacturing of renewable energy technologies

This systematic review synthesizes groundbreaking research on rare earth elements (REEs) like neodymium (Nd) and dysprosium (Dy) and non-rare earth critical minerals essential for renewable energy technologies (RETs) such as wind turbines, electric vehicles (EVs), and photovoltaics. It classifies developments in wind/solar systems, EV/storage, recycling, and circular economy tactics by analyzing 51 high-impact studies. Lab-scale protein-assisted bio-hydrometallurgy and hydromet routes report ∼90–95% recovery for Nd/Dy from NdFeB-derived streams; however, scale-up remains contingent on reagent management, equipment CAPEX, and process integration,and lessen environmental footprints, are important findings from reviewed papers. Other findings include the expectation that urban mining will meet 50–60% of REE demand by 2040 as a result of AI-driven predictive modelling and digital product passports that optimize material flows. Performance is maintained by reducing REE dependency by 30% through simplified motor designs and dysprosium-free magnets. This study's suggested bidirectional conceptual feedback loop addresses issues with high energy consumption and ethical mining by combining life cycle sustainability assessments (LCSAs) with innovative recovery methods. China's 80–90% dominance in REE processing, high recycling costs, and social effects like the ethical dilemmas associated with cobalt mining are some of the major challenges that have been identified. Governance solutions that support ethical sourcing and regulatory harmony include the EU's Critical Raw Materials Act and UN-guided just-transition funds. In order to meet net-zero targets by 2050, future research will focus on scalable hybrid recovery systems, standardized LCA metrics, and REE-free materials. This multidisciplinary synthesis offers RETs a road map for robust, just, and sustainable mineral supply chains by bridging materials science, geopolitics, and policy.