Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Remote Rural Communities of Cross River State, Nigeria: Evidence From Agoi Communities in Yakurr Local Government Area

This study examined water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) conditions in the remote Agoi communities of Yakurr Local Government Area, Cross River State, Nigeria. It assessed household drinking-water sources, physicochemical and bacteriological water quality, sanitation facilities, toilet access, hygiene behaviour and the socioeconomic predictors of handwashing practice. A mixed-method survey design was adopted, and questionnaire data were collected from 396 households in Agoi-Ekpo and Agoi-Ibami using stratified and simple random sampling. Field observation, GPS mapping and laboratory analysis of eleven drinking-water sources were also conducted. Findings show that surface water remained the dominant drinking-water source, with lakes and streams accounting for 63.6% of identified sources, while boreholes accounted for only 18.2%. Physicochemical parameters were within WHO guideline limits, but faecal coliform counts exceeded the recommended zero count for drinking water. Most households used pit latrines or wooden/block toilets, while farms lacked sanitation facilities. Logistic regression showed that monthly income and marital status significantly predicted handwashing practice. The study contributes place-based evidence on WASH vulnerability in remote communities and recommends protected water systems, improved sanitation, hygiene education and targeted rural WASH investment.