The assessment of construction quality failure costs: a taxonomy of terms, scopes, methodologies and contextual factors

Quality failure costs remain a persistent challenge in construction, yet reported estimates vary substantially across studies, limiting benchmarking and evidence-based quality management. This study systematically reviews the sources of variation in reported construction quality failure costs. A total of 48 empirical studies published over 35 years were synthesised using thematic analysis, word frequency analysis, and Association Rule Learning, interpreted through systems theory, complexity theory, and evidence-based management. The review identifies four dimensions shaping reported cost variation: terminology and definitions, research objectives and scope, methodological approach, and contextual conditions. Reported figures range from narrowly defined defect and non-conformance costs to broader quality cost frameworks incorporating prevention, appraisal, hidden, and indirect costs. Seven dominant terms are identified, with rework emerging as the most frequently used construct. These terms are operationalised at different analytical levels and measurement boundaries, producing estimates that are structurally non-comparable even when expressed in similar units. Association Rule Learning shows a statistically significant association only between quality failure and cost of poor quality, while other term pairs exhibit weak or non-significant co-occurrence. The review also reveals a strong predominance of Quality-I approaches, with limited adoption of Quality-II perspectives. The study proposes a taxonomy for more transparent and context-sensitive measurement and benchmarking.