Technology, pedagogy, and feedback: how teachers’ digital competencies shape feedback and mathematics achievement through self-regulated learning

This study examines how digital feedback is associated with mathematics-specific self-regulated learning (SRL) processes. Using PISA 2022 data, study 1 analyzes how three feedback sources (teacher, peer, automated) are associated with mathematics achievement through two SRL components (self-efficacy and proactive behaviour) among 309,256 students across 52 countries/economies. Results show that teacher feedback is positively associated with both SRL and achievement, with self-efficacy emerging as a stronger mediator. Study 2 combines student data with school-aggregated teacher data, including 62,490 students nested within 2786 schools across 12 countries/economies, to examine how teachers’ technological knowledge (TK), technological content knowledge (TCK), and technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) moderate the relationship between teacher feedback, SRL, and achievement. School-level mathematics-specific TCK was associated with stronger feedback–SRL pathways, whereas TPK showed an unexpected negative moderating pattern. Findings suggest that digital teacher feedback may be more strongly linked to SRL when supported by content-focused technology integration.