The Double-Edged Sword Effect of Government Chatbot Empathy on Citizens’ Continued Usage Intention

With recent breakthroughs in affective computing and AI algorithms, government chatbots are evolving from function-oriented tools to emotionally responsive agents capable of detecting, decoding, and responding to citizens’ emotional cues. This shift holds significant potential for enhancing citizens’ continued usage intention. Drawing on social presence theory and employing a scenario-based experimental design, this study investigates whether, how, and under what conditions empathy by government chatbots affects citizens’ willingness to continue using such services. The findings reveal that empathy positively influence continued usage intention by enhancing users’ psychological engagement and perceived information richness. However, the strength of this effect is significantly moderated by the type of time pressure. Specifically, under endogenous time pressure, the positive effect of government chatbot empathy is amplified, whereas under exogenous time pressure, the effect is attenuated. This study uncovers the double-edged nature of empathic design in government chatbots, contributing to the literature on human–robot interaction in public service contexts. It also offers practical implications for the adaptive design of empathic government chatbots to optimize citizen engagement and service effectiveness.