Emerging fabrication techniques for piezoelectric scaffolds in bone tissue engineering: A systematic review

Background Bone regeneration is regulated by biochemical, mechanical, and electrical cues. Piezoelectric materials have emerged as promising candidates in bone tissue engineering because they generate localized electrical stimulation in response to mechanical loading, potentially enhancing osteogenic differentiation and bone regeneration without the need for external electrical devices. This systematic review aims to evaluate piezoelectric materials for bone tissue engineering, with particular emphasis on their fabrication techniques, material classes, reported biological effects, and associated limitations, challenges, and future prospects. Methods A systematic literature search was conducted in scientific databases to identify experimental studies investigating piezoelectric materials for bone tissue engineering. Eligible studies reported on material fabrication, scaffold design, and in vitro or in vivo biological outcomes. Data were extracted on piezoelectric material types, fabrication techniques, including additive manufacturing, conventional and field-assisted sintering, electrospinning, film coating, casting, foaming, and phase separation and associated biological effects. The advantages, limitations, and applicability of each fabrication approach for scaffold fabrication were systematically compared. Results & discussion The reviewed literature reflects a wide variety of fabrication methods currently explored for piezoelectric constructs in bone tissue engineering. This methodological heterogeneity suggests ongoing efforts to tailor scaffold architecture, material distribution, and functional properties, and is associated with reported advances in scaffold design and performance. Across the included studies, piezoelectric materials are frequently described as being linked to indicators of osteogenic differentiation and bone regenerative responses. However, these findings vary considerably depending on material type, fabrication strategy, and experimental design. Persistent limitations are evident, particularly regarding the trade-off between scaffold porosity and mechanical stability. In addition, evidence from in vivo studies remains limited, restricting the extent to which the reported findings can be generalized. Conclusion Piezoelectric materials show considerable potential for enhancing bone regeneration in tissue engineering applications. Further material optimization, standardized assessment methods, and robust biological validation are required to support clinical translation.