Comparative Practices in 3-D Geoinformation by National Mapping and Cadastral Agencies

The rapid evolution of three-dimensional (3-D) geospatial science has redefined the standards of national mapping and cadastral agencies (NMCAs). Traditionally bodies of authoritative 2-D topographic products, these organisations now face the challenge of producing, maintaining, and disseminating national-scale 3-D geospatial datasets that support applications ranging from climate adaptation and urban planning to disaster response and digital twins. This paper presents a comparative study of five NMCAs, comprising IGN (France), BKG (Germany), Kadaster (The Netherlands), GSI (Japan) and USGS (United States of America). By examining agency structure, economic models, and 3-D data collection programmes, this paper identifies converging trends in AI integration, national surveys, along with divergences in funding and implementation. The analysis highlights insights and potential lessons for organisations at early stages of national 3-D dataset implementation.