Molybdenum nutrition in fruits and vegetables: a comprehensive review of physiology, disorders, and management

Molybdenum (Mo) is an essential micronutrient that significantly influences nitrogen metabolism, photosynthesis, enzyme function, stress resilience, and overall productivity in fruit and vegetable crops. This review offers a critical synthesis of current knowledge regarding Mo nutrition, its physiological roles, deficiency symptoms, toxic effects, and management approaches in horticultural systems. When supplied in adequate amounts, Mo improves nitrate assimilation, chlorophyll synthesis, flowering, fruit development, yield, and quality in crops such as grapevine, citrus, tomato, cauliflower, leafy vegetables, and legumes. Conversely, Mo deficiency reduces nitrate reductase activity and disrupts nitrogen metabolism, leading to chlorosis, poor growth, diminished reproductive development, and specific disorders including whiptail in cauliflower and yellow spot in citrus. Excess Mo can also upset nutrient balance and hinder the absorption of other micronutrients like copper, iron, and manganese. Soil pH is a major determinant of Mo availability, with deficiencies most common in acidic and heavily weathered soils. Management strategies such as liming, soil and foliar Mo application, fertigation, integrated nutrient management, and seed treatment have demonstrated considerable promise in enhancing Mo availability and crop performance. Nevertheless, there is still limited information on crop-specific Mo needs, toxicity limits, nutrient interactions, and long-term environmental impacts. Emerging techniques like nano-fertilizers and precision nutrient management may further boost Mo-use efficiency and support sustainable crop production.