Cultural comparison of positive development: network analyses of adolescents’ ecological systems in Mainland and non-Mainland China

Understanding the ecological contexts of adolescents’ positive development across different sociocultural settings remains critical but underexamined. This study examined how family and school factors, along with adolescents’ positive developmental outcomes, interrelate as an ecological network across subcultural groups in Greater China. Network analyses revealed a more tightly connected configuration within the Mainland China (MC) group, with denser connections among family factors, school factors, and positive developmental outcomes. In contrast, the non-Mainland China (non-MC) network exhibited weaker overall connectivity. Reading competence and resilience were the most central outcomes within the MC network, whereas parental emotional support demonstrated greater bridging strength within the non-MC network. Additionally, belongingness emerged as a central factor across both groups. Findings highlight cross-subcultural differences in adolescents’ developmental ecologies and provide a foundation for culturally responsive interventions.