'Our Enemies in the North': William Rufus’s War Against Robert de Mowbray, Earl of Northumbria, in 1095, and the Complexities of Loyalty in the Middle Ages

Bonds of loyalty in the 1095 war between Robert, earl of Northumbria and King William II are examined. It argues that the morality of loyalty depends on the context and on the point of view of those judging loyalty acts. Is loyalty always given voluntarily, or is an individual's agency circumscribed by their social and political bonds? Mowbray's motivations are examined, as well as those of others, family and friends, embroiled in the conflict. Did family and allies have a choice in supporting him? Sworn loyalty's resilience is examined. If an oath is needed to ensure loyalty, is this ‘true loyalty’? Can loyalty be forced, or merely transactional, rather than deeply felt? Crises expose, test, and sometimes strengthen bonds of loyalty, but a range of moral and pragmatic considerations can also precipitously dissolve them. This essay is part of a Special Issue on Loyalty in Medieval Europe.