Water–carbon footprint nexus in gypsum powder production: Life cycle insights for sustainable resource management

In this study, the water consumption and carbon footprint intensity of gypsum powder production were assessed using a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach within the water footprint network (WFN) framework. The main objective was to provide a comprehensive understanding of gypsum's environmental impacts and identify strategies to improve resource efficiency. The blue water footprint intensity was estimated at 0.44 m3 per ton, with about 97% attributed to virtual water in upstream processes, including energy production, fuel supply, and raw materials. The carbon footprint intensity was 64.61 kg CO2eq per ton, covering all direct and indirect inputs, including electricity, natural gas, diesel, transportation, water consumption, and personnel meals. These results indicate that gypsum production imposes relatively low environmental burdens compared to other construction materials. This study contributes a novel perspective by focusing on intensity-based indicators of water and carbon use, allowing precise comparison and benchmarking within the construction sector. Sensitivity analysis showed that energy consumption, particularly electricity and natural gas, is the primary driver of both water and carbon footprints, highlighting the importance of virtual water in energy supply chains. The findings have practical implications, showing that gypsum, as a low-intensity construction material, can further reduce environmental impacts when coupled with energy-efficiency improvements and cleaner energy sources. The methodology, grounded in ISO standards and the WFN framework, ensures international comparability and provides a robust reference for policymakers and producers seeking more sustainable construction materials.