Occurrence and human health risk assessment of persistent organic pollutants in surface waters of Badovci Lake, Kosovo

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) remain a global environmental concern due to their persistence, toxicity, and potential adverse effects on human health. This study investigated the occurrence and human health risks associated with organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and volatile aromatic hydrocarbons (BTEX) in surface water samples collected from Badovci Lake, Kosovo, in October 2025. Samples were analyzed using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC–MS/MS) following standardized analytical procedures. Total concentrations ranged from 0.873–33.418 μg/L for ΣOCPs, 0.512–17.467 μg/L for ΣPCBs, <LOD–0.050 μg/L for ΣPAHs, and < LOD–0.056 μg/L for ΣBTEX. Results revealed that OCPs are the dominant contaminants, with dieldrin and heptachlor epoxide exceeding safety thresholds by several orders of magnitude, contributing to a cumulative non-carcinogenic hazard index (HI) of 571.3. PCBs exhibited moderate concentrations, while PAHs and BTEX were present at minimal levels (<0.05 μg/L). Carcinogenic risk assessment indicates that OCPs present a lifetime cancer risk slightly above WHO/USEPA acceptable limits (10−6–10−4), whereas PCBs, PAHs, and BTEX remain within safe limits. The findings highlight the critical need for continuous monitoring, advanced water treatment, and targeted management strategies to mitigate chronic exposure and protect public health.