Heavy Metals in Agriculture: Sources, Industrial Applications, Plant Toxicity, and Remediation Approaches

Heavy metal pollution has become a critical concern in agricultural ecosystems driven by a complex matrix of industrial practices, high-input fertilizers, metal-based agrochemicals, and wastewater irrigation. While the previous literature typically highlights general physiological symptoms of heavy metal stress, this review provides a novel, comprehensive framework that bridges three independent pillars: specific industrial applications dictating elemental pathway, localizes active root-zone transport kinetics, and an engineering-based evaluation of emerging remediation strategies. We systematically synthesized literature from 2000 to 2026 across major databases (WoS, PubMed and Google Scholar), applying strict inclusion criteria based on data validation, experimental reproducibility, and mechanistic depth. We examine the geochemical behavior, cellular toxicity, and plant resilience mechanics of seven priority elements like cadmium, lead, arsenic, aluminum, mercury, chromium and molybdenum. Rather than merely reiterating superficial visual damage like chlorosis or stunted growth, we focus on physiological and molecular root causes of phytotoxicity, including the structural hijacking of essential nutrient networks, intracellular reduction cascades and organelle-specific oxidative disruption. This review also discussed the discovery of specialized, energy-dependent eukaryotic transport mechanisms like ABC transporters and a comparative operational blueprint evaluating physical–chemical conventional remediation techniques against advanced in situ and ex situ biotechnological approaches, including biochar assistance, microbial engineering, rhizosphere synergies, and engineered nanomaterials. By systematically linking industrial source dynamics with cellular toxicological mechanisms and field-scale engineering feasibility, this review establishes an actionable roadmap for future genetic, agronomic, and management interventions aimed at securing global food.