The opening of treaty ports, early modernization, and female labor value: evidence from late Qing China

This study examines the late Qing modernization’s impact on women’s status. Using bride price data from judicial documents as a measure of female labor value, we show that early industrialization increased women’s economic contributions to their households. As male labor-intensive industries expanded, women's responsibilities grew due to male migration, which shifted agricultural duties to them. The emergence of female labor-intensive sectors opened up factory jobs for impoverished women, enhancing their economic autonomy. The role of labor remained a significant factor driving these changes, even when considering other aspects of modernization. These findings highlight the importance of labor participation in improving women’s economic agency and offer historical parallels for contemporary efforts toward gender equality and empowerment.