Recent progress in Gadolinium-based theranostic agents for liver and breast cancer management

This review compiles and critically analyzes recent advancements in gadolinium (III) complexes for targeted liver and breast cancer therapies. Emphasis is placed on structure-activity relationships, ligand frameworks, cytotoxicity profiles, and imaging capabilities. Various ligands including Schiff bases, thiosemicarbazones, 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7-trisacetic acid (DO3A) conjugates, and benzothiazole derivatives have been used to improve selectivity, stability, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast. Several Gd 3+ complexes demonstrate strong anticancer efficacy with IC 50 values as low as 0.58 µM against 4T1 breast cancer and 0.75 µM against MDA-MB-231, highlighting their tumor-specific cytotoxicity. The review also summarizes the theranostic potential of dual metal (Gd–Cu, Gd–Pt) systems, which combine therapeutic effects with imaging functionality. Selected complexes display mitochondrial targeting, apoptosis induction, ferroptosis, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and reduced toxicity toward normal cells, positioning Gd-based agents as promising candidates for integrated cancer diagnostics and treatment.