Emerging Biomarkers in Breast Cancer: Prevention and Therapy With Vitamin A and Carotenoids

Fat-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin A (VitA) and carotenoids, are crucial micronutrients with strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that mitigate oxidative stress and inhibit cancer progression. Breast cancer (BC) is the most prevalent cancer among women, and the anti-tumor properties of VitA and carotenoids are gaining increasing attention, particularly because BC risk is strongly influenced by lifestyle factors, including unhealthy dietary habits. Although VitA and carotenoids may exert preventive effects on BC development and progression, there is limited evidence supporting the practical application of these micronutrients in the detection and prevention of BC. Mechanistically, high doses of carotenoids reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) directly or indirectly through the modulation of transcription factors such as NF-κB and Nrf2–, and through activation of nuclear hormone receptor pathways, including like retinoic acid receptors (RAR), retinoid X receptors (RXR), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). These pathways modulate retinoic acid receptor signaling and inhibit oncogenic pathways including PI3K/Akt/mTOR, thereby enhancing apoptosis and suppressing proliferation in BC cells. This review examines the roles of VitA and carotenoids in BC, as well as methods for assessing VitA status. Additionally, this review highlights how genetic variation in the metabolism of VitAand carotenoids is associated with cancer and other pathological conditions. We also discuss how VitA and carotenoids are linked to BC development, how these micronutrients influence cancer-related mechanisms, and how recent advances in clinical research have made VitA and carotenoids promising candidates for BC treatment. This review also underscores the preventive and therapeutic potential of VitA and carotenoids in the initiation and progression of BC.