It Gets Worse Before It Gets Better: Individual and Group-Level Effects of a VR-Based Training to Prevent Ethnic Profiling in Policing

This study evaluates the short- and long-term effects of a novel, immersive training programme designed to increase police officers’ willingness and ability to prevent ethnic profiling. The programme combines virtual reality (VR) simulations with group-based dialogue, grounded in constructive controversy methodology. Using a longitudinal design, 519 Dutch police officers participated in one of three conditions: no training, one-time training, or repetitive (three-times) training. To assess effects, participants completed questionnaires measuring individual-level variables (ethnic reform attitude, knowledge, self-efficacy) and team-level variables (group efficacy, psychological safety, intragroup conflict). These measures were collected at five time points: baseline (a month before training), directly after each training session, and 6 months after the final session. Results from linear mixed models indicate that training significantly affected both individual and team-level outcomes. One-time training was primarily effective in increasing knowledge and improving psychological safety. Repetitive training led to a temporary decline in self-efficacy and group efficacy immediately after training, but only through repetition were sustained long-term improvements observed in attitudes, self-efficacy, and group efficacy. Psychological safety improved following one-time training and remained stable over time, with no additional benefits from repeated sessions. These findings suggest that while single-session training may produce short-term gains in knowledge and safety perceptions, repeated training is essential to achieve lasting changes in attitudes, efficacy beliefs, and team dynamics. For police organisations aiming to reduce ethnic profiling, training must go beyond one-off interventions and instead focus on sustained, repeated efforts to embed change at both individual and organisational levels.