Sustainability of water, sanitation and hygiene services in urban schools: A cross-sectional assessment using the joint monitoring programme (JMP) framework in Ébolowa, South Cameroon

A mixed-methods cross-sectional study conducted across 66 schools in Ébolowa (capital of the South Region of Cameroon) reveals a critical state of WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) services in urban educational institutions. Results show that drinking water coverage reaches 61%, sanitation coverage 59%, while hygiene covers only 47% of needs — with a hygiene no-service rate of 42%, twice the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) 2023 global benchmark. A composite WASH coverage index classifies 73% of schools at moderate or lower performance levels. The principal failure identified by drivers are technical (seasonal borehole drying, handpump corrosion), financial (less than 2% of school operational budgets allocated to WASH) and sociocultural (vandalism, low community ownership, absent WASH clubs). Furthermore, stagnant water zones caused by non-functional drainage aprons were recorded in 64% of school compounds, constituting proven sanitary and environmental hazards. The study recommends five priority actions, including the adoption of India Mark II handpumps, the universal installation of tippy-tap hygiene stations, the establishment of participatory maintenance committees, ring-fenced WASH financing, and the integration of WASH into school curricula — with direct implications for the Ministry of Basic Education (MINEDUB), the Ministry of Public Health (MINSANTE) and development partners tracking Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6.1/6.2 and SDG 4.a progress in Cameroon.