How does presentation method and measurement protocol affect distance estimation in real and virtual environments?

We conducted two experiments that compared distance perception in real and virtual environments in six visual presentation methods using either timed imagined walking or direct blindfolded walking, while controlling for several other factors that could potentially impact distance perception. Our presentation conditions included unencumbered real world, real world seen through an HMD, virtual world seen through an HMD, augmented reality seen through an HMD, virtual world seen on multiple, large immersive screens, and photo-based presentation of the real world seen on multiple, large immersive screens. We found that there was a similar degree of underestimation of distance in the HMD and large-screen presentations of virtual environments. We also found that while wearing the HMD can cause some degree of distance underestimation, this effect depends on the measurement protocol used. Finally, we found that photo-based presentation did not help to improve distance perception in a large-screen immersive display system. The discussion focuses on points of similarity and difference with previous work on distance estimation in real and virtual environments.