From local hacks to global standards: The hidden politics of internet protocols

We analyze the governance of the internet's digital spaces through the lens of protocols and standards: often obscure yet essential social agreements and technical codifications that make the internet ‘work.’ Building on theorizations of “the stack”, we examine how protocols are created, maintained, and scaled into global standards. Our analysis focuses on three key dimensions: (1) actors (who does the work: individuals, communities, firms, states, etc.); (2) localization (where the work happens: places and networks); and (3) formality (how work is done: from informal to formalized processes). Using case studies of (1) country code top-level domains and the Internet Protocol (IP), (2) Network Time Protocol (NTP) and the time zone (tz) database, and (3) the General Transit Feed Specification (GTFS), we explore how digital protocols function across governance types and what can be learned from their expansion and failure. These protocols are best understood as dynamic processes – what we call stacked spaces – that emerge from localized efforts but can rapidly scale into global standards, posing unique governance challenges. As protocols underpin our increasingly digitized social lives, scrutinizing their governance reveals the power and agency embedded in digital infrastructure, offering pathways towards more resilient and equitable governance of digital spaces.