End-of-life management of electric vehicle batteries utilizing the life cycle assessment

To achieve sustainable development in the electric vehicle (EV) industry, this study assesses the environmental impacts of retired electric vehicle batteries (EVBs) throughout the life cycle. The life cycle assessment (LCA) with the ReCiPe method is implemented with environmental impacts: CO2eq emissions, human toxicity, terrestrial acidification, particulate matter (PM) formation, metal depletion, and fossil depletion. Four EOL management scenarios, namely the landfilling, remanufacturing, repurposing, and recycling processes, are examined with the background data obtained from the Ecoinvent database v3.6 and data collected from secondary sources. The study results reveal that the landfilling scenario is highly harmful to humans and due to its highest environmental impacts, specifically CO2 emission (2,236 kg CO2eq) from the material extraction process. In contrast, the recycling scenario is the most environmentally friendly scenario, as it reduces the human toxicity (45,934 kg 1,4-DBeq), terrestrial acidification (425 kg SO2eq), and metal depletion (20,129 kg Feeq), achieving the lowest final impact score of -277. The study further examines the recycling scenario with different energy mixes, i.e. natural gas, coal, and renewable energy. The results suggest that the complete use of renewable energy could improve the final impact value to -281.1. The results also recommend the remanufacturing scenario as it reduces CO2eq emission by 1,193 kg CO2eq. The government may utilize the study results to enhance the circular economy of retired EVBs through various strategies to compete in the global market. A comprehensive evaluation of EOL management practices of retired EVBs offers valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders to minimize the ecological footprint of the EV industry and support Thailand’s sustainability goals. A future study may be performed to compare the EOL management scenarios with actual practices and suggest suitable improvements. The policy-based simulations could be implemented to examine long-term impacts of EOL management practices in Thailand. Implication Statement The global warming issue has become critical and countries worldwide initiate policies and strategies to minimize waste and environmental impacts. The use of electric vehicles (EVs) is expected to reduce such impact; nevertheless, it leads to the issue of electric vehicle battery (EVB) waste. This study examines the environmental impacts of the end-of-life (EOL) management of the retired EVBs, specifically the remanufacturing, repurposing, and recycling processes. The results pinpoint several key impacts, namely CO2eq emissions, human toxicity, terrestrial acidification, particulate matter formation, metal depletion, and fossil depletion in the EOL management processes. It is clear that the current practice (i.e. landfilling) is highly harmful to humans and the environment, mainly from the material extraction process. In contrast, the most effective EOL strategy for retired EVBs is recycling, as it generates the lowest human toxicity, terrestrial acidification, and metal depletion. The remanufacturing scenario is the most suitable scenario when CO2eq emission is a major concern. The study also examines the recycling scenario’s different energy mixes (i.e. natural gas, coal, and renewable energy). The results suggest that at least half of the energy used in electricity production should be renewable to improve the final impact of this scenario further. A comprehensive evaluation of EOL management practices of retired EVBs offers valuable insights for the government and stakeholders to plan for sustainable EOL management policies to reduce the ecological footprint and achieve sustainable development in the long term.