Modernisation in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM): Governance, technology, market integration and contested development pathways

Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is increasingly recognised as a critical source of livelihoods and minerals required for the global energy transition. Yet despite decades of formalisation, the sector remains highly informal, with uneven governance, gender bias and persistent inequality due to a multitude of reasons. Therefore, this systematic integrative review analyses the interplay of governance, technological modernisation and market integration factors in shaping ASM modernisation in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) from an interdisciplinary perspective. Sixty-five peer-reviewed studies published between 2006 and 2026 were analysed using a thematic synthesis and Gioia-inspired coding. Six interrelated questions about the drivers behind informality, licensing bureaucracy, elite capture, professionalisation, modernisation with a gender lens, and ASM–LSM relations were asked. Findings show that modernisation is a process mediated by governance, rather than technology. Formalisation does not mean just licensing but also secure mining rights, institutional capacity, technical support, financial inclusion and continuous support after formalisation. However, high licensing fees, bureaucracy, insecure property rights and layered governance sustain informality. Modernisation can also drive professionalisation and elite capture, while gender-neutral reforms often deepen inequalities for women. The review also notes several emerging trends that indicate the collaborative cohabitation of ASM - LSM can be a pathway to sustainable sectoral development. The study advances a relational understanding of ASM modernisation by showing how governance, technology, markets and social relations interact to produce divergent livelihood outcomes. It provides a current evidence base for more inclusive formalisation policies, gender-responsive governance and partnership-based ASM development in SSA.