Advances in nanoparticle-based electrochemical biosensors for bioanalytical applications

Significant advancements in electrochemical biosensors for industrial, environmental, and biological applications have been fuelled by the growing need for quick, sensitive, and affordable analytical tools. Because of the special physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles, such as their high surface-to-volume ratio, size-dependent electrochemical behaviour, and superior catalytic activity, nanoparticle-based electrochemical biosensors have become potent analytical platforms in recent years. Nanoparticle-enabled biosensors have lower detection limits, faster electron-transfer kinetics, and improved sensitivity when compared to traditional sensing devices. A thorough and critical summary of current advancements in electrochemical biosensors based on nanoparticles for bioanalytical applications is given in this review. The functions of several nanoparticle classes—such as metal, metal oxide, carbon-based, ceramic, and organic nanoparticlesin enhancing electrochemical performance are methodically examined. Electron-transfer mechanisms, electrochemical sensing methods, and important fabrication procedures are thoroughly reviewed. Major bioanalytical applications like glucose, cholesterol, and neurotransmitter sensing are given special attention. Strategies for clinical translation, performance constraints, and current issues are also presented. Lastly, new developments and prospects for customized healthcare and smart diagnostics are examined.