Gender and territorial disparities in household income from neglected and underutilised crops (NUCs) in the mountainous Kivu region of eastern D.R. Congo

Neglected and Underutilized Crops (NUCs) are increasingly recognised for their potential to diversify farming systems and strengthen rural livelihoods in marginal tropical environments. However, limited empirical evidence exists on how gender relations and territorial contexts shape their economic contribution in smallholder systems. This study examines the role of gender and territorial factors in household income derived from NUCs in the mountainous Kivu region. Household survey data were collected from smallholder farmers and analysed using multivariate techniques to assess relationships between socio-demographic characteristics, production practices, and income from NUCs. The results reveal marked gender disparities in access to key agricultural resources, including land tenure, farm size, seed sources, and labour organisation. Women are more engaged in small-scale production systems and rely mainly on market-based seed access, whereas men benefit more from institutional support and larger cultivated areas. Despite these constraints, NUCs represent an important income source for women. Income from NUCs is higher among women (~ 170.9 USD) than men (~ 144.3 USD), suggesting a contribution to women’s economic empowerment. Territorial variation is also observed, with income differences across villages linked to socio-economic conditions, market accessibility, and agroecological environments. In addition, households combining family and hired labour achieve higher incomes from NUCs than those relying solely on family labour. Overall, the findings show that income from NUCs is shaped by the interaction of gender relations, labour organisation, and territorial context. Gender-sensitive policies and locally adapted interventions could enhance the role of NUCs in supporting resilient and inclusive rural livelihoods in the region.