Parental Gender Identity Socialization Among Transgender and Gender Expansive Youth in the U.S.: A Grounded Theory Conceptual Model

Transgender and gender expansive (TGE) youth experience high rates of mental health concerns due to stigma, marginalization, and discrimination. There is an urgent need for research that illuminates strategies for mitigating the deleterious impacts of minority stressors on TGE youth. Family support is necessary for TGE youth as they face increasing stigma and barriers to care and resources. Yet, we lack research that explores a wide range of parenting behaviors and parent-child processes among families of TGE youth that may impact youth’s well-being and development. Therefore, this study utilized constructivist grounded theory and dyadic interviews with parents and their TGE adolescents in the U.S. to develop a conceptual model of parental gender identity socialization among TGE youth. Findings included six interrelated processes that cisgender, heterosexual parents engage in as gender identity socialization toward their TGE children, including one before learning of their child’s TGE identity and five following the disclosure of their child’s gender identity. Implications for research and practice are discussed.