Kicking away the ladder? Trade, technology transfer, and Chinese-East German disputes on the development of precision mechanics and optical industry

The German Democratic Republic (GDR), an industrial socialist nation known for its optical industry, particularly VEB Carl Zeiss Jena, was China’s primary supplier of optical lenses and equipment during the Cold War. Economic and technological negotiations between China and the GDR frequently centred on the optical industry. While China aimed to advance its optical sector, the GDR sought to maintain the status quo and boost exports by proposing a division of labour—reminiscent of pre-socialist imperialist and capitalist policies. However, China’s communist leaders rejected this approach, insisting on building a self-­sufficient industrial system. Despite criticism that the GDR’s policy aimed to limit China’s development, optical exports to China remained strong through the late 1960s. Mao’s rejection of the GDR’s proposal and resistance to production cooperation ultimately hindered China’s optical industry growth and strained economic cooperation within the socialist bloc during this period.