Deep insights to explain the mechanism of carbon dot formation at various reaction times using the hydrothermal technique: FT-IR, 13 C-NMR, 1 H-NMR, and UV-visible spectroscopic approaches

-spacing measured from the HR-TEM image is about 0.26 nm, which agrees with the (100) plane lattice of graphite carbon and confirms the purity of the NCD product with a surface covered by polar functional groups. This investigation will lead to a greater understanding of the effect of hydrothermal reaction time on the mechanism and structure of carbon dot synthesis. Moreover, it offers a simple, low-cost, and gram-scale method for creating high-quality NCDs crucial for various applications.