Abstract Large carnivores often share space yet face strong interference risks, raising a key question: when co-occurrence is observed, is their interaction intentional (attraction or avoidance) or incidental (random encounters)? Most overlap metrics blur this distinction and miss lagged or indirect interactions that may structure coexistence. We present a time-geographic framework to determine whether interactions are intentional or random, and at what temporal scales they occur, using a case study of tigers ( Panthera tigris ) and leopards ( Panthera pardus ) in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand. Using rich long-term GPS tracking data from six tigers and five leopards with overlapping home ranges collected between 2017 and 2021, yielding 17 tiger-leopard dyads, we quantify interaction frequency and duration across sequential temporal partitions and test intentionality using a null model of correlated random walks. This approach reveals the dynamics of co-existence and competition between the two species. We further analyze these dynamics at the dyad level and in relation to prey distribution to assess how mapped large-bodied prey context mediates interspecific competition. Our results indicate that temporal staggering around prey patches, rather than pure spatial segregation, underpins tiger–leopard coexistence. Specifically, the analysis reveals two broader recurring interaction patterns: stable coexistence and home range shift competition, together with one rare high-conflict case. This framework separates intentional from incidental overlap, linking interaction regimes to prey landscapes and life history in multi-predator systems.
Liu et al. (Mon,) studied this question.