Opening up the black box: a scoping review of qualitative observational research on situational demands in policing

Police-citizen interactions are complex, dynamic, and difficult to predict, placing high demands on police action. Little is known about the specific demands officers face in the field, and a systematic overview of qualitative observational studies of real police-citizen interactions is lacking. This scoping review addresses this gap by analysing 50 studies based on ethnographic field observations, systematic observations, and video recordings, aiming to identify situational demands and factors influencing escalation and deescalation processes. The results show that the level of physical escalation generally remains low. Fixed factors such as gender, age, or ethnicity are often examined, but their influence on the interaction process cannot be substantiated. In contrast, situational, interactional, and communicative factors prove consistently relevant on both sides. The evidence suggests there are no one-size-fits-all strategies: police training should develop officers’ social and situational competence to recognise risks early, steer interactions purposefully, and respond flexibly to dynamic demands.