Processing–property–performance relationships in ceramic, metallic, and polymer-fiber armor systems: A quantitative review of constitutive models, ballistic limits, and design frontiers

Ceramic–metal–polymer composite armors and their kinetic-energy (KE) counterparts represent one of the most materials-intensive engineering challenges of the modern era: maximizing protection while minimizing areal density. This review synthesizes 111 peer-reviewed studies (1980–2026) to deliver, for the first time, a quantitative Pareto-frontier analysis of ballistic-limit velocity (V₅₀) versus areal density for 23 armor configurations spanning seven material classes, establishing the weight-efficiency envelope that any new armor material must surpass to be considered competitive. Four principal findings emerge. First, nanosilica-reinforced glass/polybenzoxazine and CNT-reinforced AA2024 composites define the current Pareto frontier, achieving V₅₀ ≈ 1075 m/s at 26 kg/m², representing a 45% mass reduction relative to rolled-homogeneous-armor baselines. Second, a cross-study saturating-exponential fit (R² = 0.94) quantifies the ceramic face-plate design ceiling: depth-of-penetration reduction saturates above approximately 10 mm thickness, beyond which additional mass is better invested in backing layers, interlayer adhesion, or pre-stress confinement. Third, consolidated Johnson–Cook (JC) parameter sets for 14 armor and penetrator materials and Johnson–Holmquist-2 (JH-2) constants for four principal ceramics are presented in unified notation, revealing that boron carbide, the lightest of the four ceramics, delivers the largest ballistic-limit-velocity gain (+82% over a plain backing) by virtue of its highest Hugoniot Elastic Limit (17.0 GPa). Fourth, the Johnson–Cook / Johnson–Holmquist constitutive pair has consolidated into the dominant computational framework, appearing in 61% of reviewed numerical studies. Ten original cross-study figures and seven tables translate these findings into portable design rules for materials engineers selecting, designing, or simulating advanced protective systems.