Multisensory Contributions to Presence in CARLA-Based Virtual Reality Bicycle Simulation

Future traffic scenarios will involve autonomous vehicles (AVs) interacting with other road users, including cyclists. For this interaction to be safe and socially acceptable, there is a need for development and testing environments that enable scenarios between AVs and cyclists including ethical, logistical, and safety constraints. While human-in-the-loop transport simulation offers an alternative, achieving high behavioral validity requires maximizing user presence and control. This study evaluates a modular, multi-sensory cycling simulator built on the CARLA autonomous driving engine. Through a fully randomized and counterbalanced within-subjects design with 31 participants, we analyzed four simulator configurations incorporating combinations of stereoscopic visualization, speed-dependent haptic eolic feedback, first-person visual self-embodiment, and 3D spatialized audio. Non-parametric statistical evaluations revealed significant differences across the groups (χ2(3)=60.47, p<0.001, W=0.650). Post-hoc pairwise comparisons indicated that, while head-mounted displays (HMDs) provide a level of spatial orientation, the concurrent integration of visual self-embodiment and speed-dependent airflow acts as a unifying sensory cue, significantly increasing system coherence. Conversely, the addition of 3D spatialised audio yielded no statistically significant improvement (Z=−0.06, p=1.000), suggesting a sensory saturation effect. Cross-dimensional analysis confirmed a positive correlation between perceived presence and interface control (ρ=0.693, p<0.001). These findings suggest that a combination of visual feedback, haptic airflow, and self-embodiment may be enough to provide a realistic environment for cyclist–AV interaction studies including multiple agents.