Investigating the Dynamics of Human–Wildlife Conflict in Oil Palm Plantation: Cases from Johor and Sabah, Malaysia

Human–wildlife conflict (HWC) in agricultural landscapes presents significant socio-economic and ecological challenges, particularly in biodiversity-rich regions like Malaysia. This study examines the dynamics of HWC in oil palm plantations in Johor and Sabah, focusing on conflict types, key interaction points, and associated impacts. Using a qualitative approach, data were collected through focus group discussions with stakeholders, including smallholders, plantation managers, conservation organizations, and government agencies. Thematic analysis identified three major conflict types: human–elephant, human–carnivore, and human–primate conflicts. Among these, human–elephant conflicts were the most prevalent, causing extensive crop destruction and economic losses. Carnivore-related conflicts, particularly involving Malayan tigers in Johor and clouded leopards in Sabah, were primarily linked to livestock predation, while human–primate conflicts, involving orangutans and proboscis monkeys, contributed to crop losses. The study further identified three primary conflict points: damage to oil palm trees, destruction of plantation infrastructure, and impacts on labor conditions. The economic burden on smallholders and plantation operators, coupled with shifting community perceptions toward wildlife, underscores the urgency for sustainable mitigation strategies. This study contributes novel insights by providing a comparative analysis of HWC across two ecologically distinct regions. Findings emphasize the need for integrative policies, including habitat restoration, improved land-use planning, and financial compensation mechanisms for affected stakeholders. Future research should explore multi-disciplinary approaches, incorporating geospatial analysis and economic modeling, to develop adaptive conflict management strategies. Addressing HWC through evidence-based solutions is crucial for balancing agricultural development with biodiversity conservation in Malaysia and other tropical regions.